![]() ![]() Key developments include Zuntz’s 1906 innovative system, then a significant improvement to this purely mechanical system by the widely adopted Kofranyi–Michaelis device in the 1940s. This review focuses on research-based portable systems designed to estimate metabolic rate typically under steady-state conditions by critically examining each significant historical innovation. For field studies, methods involving questionnaires, pedometry, accelerometery, heart rate telemetry, and doubly labelled water exist, yet portable metabolic gas analysis remains the gold standard for most field studies on energy expenditure. The measurement of human metabolism can involve direct calorimetry as well as indirect calorimetry using both closed-circuit respirometry and open-circuit methods that can include diluted flow chambers and laboratory-based gas analysis systems. Scientists such as physiologists, engineers, and nutritionists have often sought to estimate human metabolic strain during daily activities and physical pursuits.
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